Eat Well, Feel Better. the Link Between What We Eat and Our Mental Health

Eat well, feel better. The link between what we eat and our mental health. Table of contents 1 Introduction Page 2 1. 1 Background information Page 2 1. 2 Aim Page 2 1 Methodology Page 2 2. 3 Primary research Page 2 2. Secondary research Page 2 3 Findings Page 3 3. 1 What is mental illness Page 3 3. 2 The link between food and mental health Page 4 4 Conclusions Page 5 5 Recommendations Page 6 6 Bibliography Page 7 . Introduction 1. 1 Background Information In recent years there has been an increase of mental health problems in our society. According to the Department of Health(2012) one in four adults experience mental illness at some point during their lifetime and one in six experience symptoms of mental illness – thus making it the largest single cause of disability in our society. Many people choose to take control of their mental health by using self-help approaches alongside, or even instead of, prescribed medication and talking therapies.Making changes to diet and eat ing habits is just one approach that some people have used to help improve their mental well-being. The links between diet and mental health are less clearly understood than links between diet and physical health. There are some generally accepted trends and pieces of advice than can help when thinking about what you eat and drink. 1. 2 Aim This report is going to outline what mental health is and how it affects people. It is going to research how what you eat affects your mental health and how eating or not eating certain foods can contribute to a person’s mental wellbeing.It is also going to suggest the types of foods that are good to help maintain mental wellbeing and tell the reader why and how these foods make a person with mental health problems feel. 2. Methodology 2. 1Primary research The time allotted for this report did not allow for any accurate primary research to be done as this would have involved drawing up questionnaires, handing them out to a target group, co llecting them in and analysing the findings all of which would be a time consuming task. 2. 2 Secondary Research In the report secondary sources from various websites are the main source of information.There is limited information in books about this as it is a very current topic and websites such as www. mind. org and www. sustainweb. org have been carrying out research on this subject and have a lot of valuable information. 3. Findings 3. 1 what is mental illness Mental illness is a term used when someone experiences significant changes in their thinking, feelings or behavior. The changes are usually bad enough to affect how the person functions and can cause distress to them or to other people. It may cause Anxiety, Depression, Suicidal Thoughts, Sleep Deprivation and a general feeling of unease and despair.A person with a mental illness sees things differently than a person without a mental illness and something simple to a non-sufferer can be life changing to a sufferer and can lead to the illness taking over where it is a downwards spiral in to the depths of depression. This then become a vicious circle of depression leading to the sleep deprivation which in turn leads to anxiety attacks which can then lead to feelings of despair and maybe even suicidal thoughts which then brings the sufferer straight back to the beginning were they are anxious about what might happen next and starts the circle all over gain. 3. 2 Research According to Youngminds(2012) there is increasing evidence of a link between what we eat and how we feel. This is called the ‘food – mood’ connection. How we feel influences what we choose to eat or drink and vice versa – and a healthy diet can help to protect our mental health. Mental health problems are believed to be the result of a combination of factors, including age, genetics and environmental factors. One of the most obvious, yet under-recognised factors in the development of major trends in mental he alth is the role of nutrition.Sustain(2010) indicates that a balanced mood and feelings of well-being can be helped by ensuring that our diet provides adequate amounts of certain foods such as foods that contain;- * Complex carbohydrates, Glucose from the carbohydrates we eat provides the brain’s main source of fuel. Without this fuel, we can’t think clearly. Some carbs are better than others. Sugar, white pasta and biscuits will only give you a short burst of energy. You'll feel tired and grumpy when the sugar high wears off and for someone with mental health issues this could then trigger a series of emotions. . If you eat lots of sugary foods, fizzy drinks and stimulants such as coffee, tea or alcohol, your blood sugar levels go up and down. This can make you irritable, anxious, and dizzy, it can also lead to poor concentration and aggressive behaviour. Complex carbohydrates†, such as wholegrain, beans and vegetables, are a better choice because they give you sustained energy and you don’t get that come down feeling when they wear off. * Essential fats, Essential fats, found mainly in oily fish, seeds and nuts, cannot be made within the body, so we have to get them from food.Sixty per cent of the brain is made of fat, and the fats we eat directly affect its structure. A lack of omega-3 fatty acids has been linked to various mental health problems, including depression and lack of concentration. * Amino acids, Proteins found mainly in meat, fish and soya products are broken down in the body to be used as amino acids, which are vital to good mental health. Brain messengers are made in the body from the proteins that we eat. If we don't get enough amino acids it can lead to feelings of depression, apathy, lack of motivation or tension. * Vitamins and mineralsVitamins such as b ,c , e and folate along with minerals such as zinc and magnesium which are found in foods such as green leafy vegetables ,eggs ,red meat ,yeasts ,nuts, whole g rains and fruits are all good to help combat mental health issues. * Water is also very good. This is also backed up by information given by Youngminds(2012) and sustain(2012). This is, of course, the same type of healthy balanced diet that is widely recommended to reduce our risk of developing coronary heart disease, strokes, a range of cancers, diabetes and a number of digestive disorders and conditions.The diet that would give us the right amount and balance of these nutrients would contain: * lots of different vegetables and fruit * a wide variety of whole grains, * nuts, seeds and legumes, * and some occasional oily fish, lean meat and dairy products. Mind(2012) says the body of evidence linking diet and mental health is growing at a rapid pace. As well as its impact on short and long-term mental health, the evidence indicates that food plays an important contributing role in the development, management and prevention of specific mental health problems such as * depression, sch izophrenia, * attention deficit hyperactivity disorder(ADHD), * Alzheimer’s disease. This is also backed up by sustain(2010) and mentalhealthfoundation(2012). The evidence so far does not show that these conditions can be prevented or cured by diet alone. However, evidence is accumulating that the combination of polyunsaturated fats, minerals and vitamins may help to: †¢relieve the symptoms of some mental illnesses; †¢improve the effectiveness of medication for some conditions; and †¢reduce the unpleasant side-effects of some medications.Comfort eating is another symptom of mental health issues, eating or drinking the foods that give false highs but also bring that depressed low feeling when the effects of the chemicals released in the brain ware off. Mind(2012) states If you eat lots of sugary foods, fizzy drinks and stimulants such as coffee, tea or alcohol, your blood sugar levels go up and down. This can make you irritable, anxious, and dizzy, It can also l ead to poor concentration and aggressive behaviour.Even with all the information that is out there not many people realise the link between food and mental health. Mentalhealthfeedingminds(2012) states that the role of diet in the nation’s mental health has yet to be fully understood and embraced, and shifts in policy and practice have been slow to materialise. Possible reasons include a lack of awareness of the evidence, scepticism as to its quality and vested interests in other treatments and approaches. 4. ConclusionsThe aim of this report was to show the link between food and mental health and to show how certain foods effect how we feel. Whilst researching this topic the author found that there is a definite link between food and mental health although not enough research has been done in this area to allow for an extensive report to be carried out. The websites that have researched this issue are trusted and credible websites but they lack the resources to investigate f urther or carry out primary research on this matter. 5. RecommendationsA recommendation would be for extensive medical research to be carried out in this area with doctors and nutritionist working together to teach people with mental health issues how to help themselves by maintaining a healthy and balanced diet. Also primary research should be done on a target group of people with mental health issues were they keep a food diary of what they eat for a period of time noting how they felt and if there was an improvement on their mental health. References Bibliography * Departmentofhealth. (2012)Mentalhealth. Available from. www. dh. gov. uk. (Accessed02/10/2012). Ispsuk. (2012). What is mental illness and what is mental health? Availablefrom. www. ispsuk. org(2012. Accessed. 04/10/2012 * Mentalhealthintheuk. (2012). Mindguidetofoodandmood. Available from. www. mentalhealthintheuk. co. uk/Mindguidetofood. pdf. Accessed02/10/2012 * Mentalhealthfoundation. (2012). DietandMentalHealth. A vailablefromwww. mentalhealth. org. uk/help-information/mental-health-a-z/D/diet. 2012. Accessed. 04/10/2012 * Mentalhealthy. (2012). Self-help Depression Availablefrom;www. mentalhealthy. co. uk/lifestyle/mind-food/food-for-good-mental-health. Accessed03. 0. 2012 * Mindforbettermentalhealth. (2012). Mind guide to food and mood. Availablefrom;www. mind. org. uk/help/medical_and_alternative_care/food_and_mood-the_mind_guide. Accessed. 02. 10. 2012. * Sustainweb. (2010). Howarefoodandmentalhealthrelated? Availablefrom;. www. sustainweb. org/foodandmentalhealth. Accessed. 02/10/2012. * Youngminds. (2012). Youngmindsthevoiceofyoungpeoplesmentalhealthandwellbeing. availablefrom;http://www. youngminds. org. uk/for_children_young_people/better_mental_health/look_after_your_body? gclid=CJWfjqiRurMCFUVZ3godwEEAFQ. A ccessed. 02. 10. 2012.

Haditha – descriptive writing

Haditha is a large, peaceful farming town situated in western Iraq. It is saturated with primitive, concrete buildings that lace the sandy, debris-ridden roads. They are all painted a sickly shade of yellow which has flaked away from their exteriors over time and now reveals a depressing grey colour. The gigantic palm trees dwarf the grimy, one-floored houses. Most of the shops display smashed or boarded windows. The interiors are eminently dark. The wallpaper is badly torn and peeling away from the walls where it meets the ceiling. Scorch marks from grenades heavily stained the floor and deep bullet holes scarred the walls. No furniture is present – just small, sharp pieces of broken glass and devastated shrapnel. Corrugated iron awnings hang over the pavement at the front of the shops, dismally shadowing the people that walk beneath them. There is a small, crumbling petrol station at the end of the long road that looks like it hasn't operated for years. The attached shop also has smashed windows and vacant interiors. The sign on the roof of the building is badly corroded and rusting; some of the red, Arabic letters have fallen off completely. The pumps are severely damaged and submerged in litter and other large pieces of wreckage; the charred remains of a hatch-back lay next to them. Narrow, gloomy back alleys weave between the buildings of the town like a snake, creating a huge maze separated from the hustle and bustle of the streets. An M1 Abrams tank and a Stryker lie dormant on the road. They are both surrounded by a group of intimidating soldiers, with one of them lazily manning the mounted turrets. They wear baggy, yellow and green camouflage clothes; their chests buried in bags of ammunition and various other items. The rucksacks on their backs look huge in comparison to their bodies. A powerfully built soldier leans against the tank. He sweats under the intense sun and numerous layers of clothing he is wearing. He looks extremely athletic; his huge muscles stretch the fibres of his clothes to their limits. His head seems miniscule in comparison to his enormous, broad shoulders. He has a rugged, pasty complexion; his appearance seems paler still compared to the dark skin tones of the Arabs that nervously rush past. Rough stubble covers his jaw – it looks like he hasn't shaved in weeks! A small boom microphone is swung down the side of his face and hovers before his colourless lips. He is wearing dark sport shades, leaving the concealed part of his face to the imagination. His helmet isn't clipped together under his chin; it is slumped on the top of his head. The badly stitched insignia of the United States Marine Corps (a golden eagle, globe and anchor) on his left sleeve is ripped and torn, due to fall off at any minute. In his hands, he grips a scratched, matt black M16A4 assault rifle that is covered with attachments: a small sight, a cylinder-shaped laser distance finder and a grenade launcher. He is far from under-protected; he wears thick, deep grey padded gloves that look ten sizes too small for the soldier's shovel-like hands; along with camouflage pads that are loosely fastened to his bulging knee and elbow joints. The sun drearily hangs on the horizon, casting large, oblong shadows across the town. It slowly creeps down and out of sight, allowing the town to descend into darkness. The distant sound of repetitive gun fire that rattles through the air is rather soothing. The noise of large metal rotors from several Apache helicopters fills the air as they fly overhead, deafening everyone for miles around. Their chiselled, futuristic exteriors reflect something from a sci-fi movie. In a back alley, a dark-skinned insurgent stands facing a feeble-looking man, who anxiously holds a large, black leather briefcase. The insurgent's head is covered with a red, patterned table-cloth type material that falls below his neck; with only one small gap across his face that reveals his hard, piercing eyes. The rest of his body is draped in a brilliant white, silk robe. A grubby AK-47 with no stock is loosely strapped to his back. The man holding the briefcase has scars running across his face, the most prominent stretching from his ear right down to his lips; it looks like he has tried shaving with a cheese grater. Standing next to each other, the insurgent is almost a head taller than the man. Sweat pours down the man's face as he nervously hands the briefcase over to the insurgent, who eagerly stands awaiting the delivery. Their meeting is interrupted by two soldiers shouting loudly and running towards them. The insurgent and the man quickly scurry off into the embracing darkness of the back-alley. The town sinks in to darkness for another night. The cool, crisp air replaces the sweltering heat. A light breeze whistles over the empty town as people start heading for their homes; eventually the density of people in the streets declines into nothing. The few street lamps that braid the road faintly flicker. Bright green tracer from the direction of the distant gun-fire spontaneously shoots off into the night sky at various angles and then disappears from view. The lonesome soldiers huddle together around the grumbling vehicles, desperately trying to share the little body heat they have. In place of dark sports shades, they now wear huge, black bulky night vision goggles. All the lights are off, except for the moon that dimly lights up the night sky. The town is asleep.

Journalism - Writing Technologies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

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Security issues pertaining the Immigration from North Africa to EU Research Paper

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Violent media Essay Example for Free

Violent media Essay Violence is the act of injuring and killing someone. Exposure of young people to the media violence makes them to be more violent and this will be highly seen when they become adults. Children can watch movies in the television that may influence them negatively. The cartoon violence and the violence committed by real people are different. Movies will also consume productive time for the children. Instead of doing other productive work like reading children may spend a lot of time watching television. Programs in the television are addictive hence most people especially the children spend most of their time watching them. This also kills the persons, abilities to articulate any issue which relates to their life. There is also the tendency of the young people to be ineffective in solving any problem which they encounter in the real point of view. They instead attend to it as per the said actions in the media programs. This is a very serious issue which need to be addressed and adequate measures taken to get a permanent solution of the matter. There are several instances of psychological torture as a result of the video games, TV, films, and even music. People need to concentrate on the effective management and control of the accessibility of the violent media so as to build the effectiveness of personal performance (Ruben, 2006). Discussion TV contains programs that can be watched by children. These programs may include cartoon network. Cartoons can be educational as well as entertaining to children. Children can be entertained by watching TV. This cuts the cost of buying entertainment material by parents who would not have afforded them. Entertainment can be music, movies and plays. Type of music a child watches may influence his or her character. Music available in TV can be of different types that is gospel music, rock, pop, jazz, hip hop and many other types. Watching music can inspire a child to like music and may want to pursue that career later in life. These are some positive attributes of watching TV and other media which are not violent. Control should be exercised in a manner which ensures that the children and other people have access to the media which do not instill violence in them or any kind of behavior which is not appropriate to them. The society we live in is totally polluted with such issues which do not assist the inhabitants hence the resulting case is the one of violence as per what they get from the media. Utilization of adequate measures which are not restraining is very important. Media plays a major role in the passing of information to all the viewers but others love irrelevant scenes which do not help them but instead destroy their well being. A human beings psychology is very important and should be adequately feed with information which is positive in the ways of living. Contrary to this is very disastrous and a person will be affected negatively. The thinking of a person will be seriously affected as a result what is obtained from the media (Perse, 2001). Media Violence is also aired in television and it negatively affect in the young children. Exposure of young people to the media violence makes them to be more violent and this will be highly seen when they become adults. Violence is the act of injuring and killing someone. Children can watch movies in the television that may influence them negatively. The cartoon violence and the violence committed by real people are different. The cartoon violence does not have much effect as compared to the actual violence committed by real people as they seem unrealistic. Young people develop such unrealistic attitudes of approaching and solving problems encountered. The society as well is not convincing as such hence there is need for the society to address such problems. The people who encounter these issues are the young who do not know how to control such matters hence they have the psychological torture. There is need for the young to be under critical check-out for any issue which will enable them access the media which is not violent. This will enable them facilitate the media content well with their way of life. This will help them stay connected with the reality other than the media misconceptions which does not help them at all in the real life situations. Other TV channels may air movies which have some sexual and violence scenes. When children watch this kind of movies, their behavior is greatly influenced hence their thinking is also adversely affected. This has great effects to the children throughout their lives which are not appropriate since they will not act accordingly. This is further indicated on the future growth of the children when they are grown ups as they execute things which in an inappropriate manner. Watching violent movies may make children act violently. This influence the way they relate with people and the way they think. They may also end up earning a living from actions which are not worthwhile and not according to the laid down societal norms and the existing laws (Wilkins Christians, 2009). Horror movies may instill fear in children. This also affects them throughout their lives and in the way they view things. They will always be on the negative or unique and most weird position in addressing their issues and attending to their daily duties. Media can be such destructive to the viewers especially those who are not able to control what they want from it. Violent media is not appropriate to the people who are easily moved by the actions as they will put such in practice without their actual realization. It’s important for all the people to take charge of their access to media so as to avoid those which are violent. The people who are keen of that music which are very emotional also are at risk since their actions will be measured by how much they believe in the media. If they put all their trust in the media, then they will be acting as per what they get from it. There should be adequate care and control over the access to the media. Movies will also consume productive time for the children. Instead of doing other productive work like reading children may spend a lot of time watching television. Programs in the television are addictive and there should be appropriate measures which should be taken for the children to adequately in check and operating within the programs which can be productive to them. It can make someone forget everything when being aired since they concentrate so much on them without actually taking care of what they should be attending to at their time. It causes what we call zombie in children. They should be made to watch those programs that are good for them at all times. Care and control should be excised over the media access by the children as it will enable them get accessed to what is relevant to their age. There should also be those which are very educative so as to instill knowledge and creativity to them. This is very important as the children’s mind is very young and needs to be build-up in the appropriate manner. The kind of media access should be regulated to those which fits every person and the age limits of all the people so as to discourage the bad and disturbing networks and programs (Freedman, 2002). Children should be encouraged to watch good programs in television because they are educational as well as entertaining. Parents should choose the programs that are to be watched by their children. This is important as it will allow only good programs to be watched. Children should not be allowed programs and songs that may contain some sexual and violence scenes. Watching these programs may affect them later in their lives. Horror movies may make children terrified which may affect them negatively throughout their lives (Kirsh, 2006). Research has been conducted on the degree of violence before and after the introduction of television. It was found that after the introduction of television, people have become more violent. This is due to the exposure to the violent media. People tend to apply to their real life what was done on the movie. It may even make one to be remorseful when they do something bad. This is very bad and it injures the viewers yet it does suppose to be entertainment on their part. Applying such acts is very destructive to an individual and to other people as well as there has to be some one to fell the impact. People need to be educated about the contents of the media. There is need to inform them that its being acted by people like them and its meant for entertainment not to be implemented in real life situations. The films can be so divisive to the viewers and hence the power of information is important on the meaning of the media content so as no to affect the people psychologically (Bryant Oliver, 2009). Video game is another type of media violence that has a great effect on children. Most of the games that are produced have some form of violence in it and this may psychologically affect the young people. Researches that have been conducted shows that the children who play violent games are most likely to act violently. These are very serious situations to have the children exposed to. The games which are violent are supposed to be avoided by the children. Most of the children will start implementing such actions they have been playing with others on the streets so as to be seen as the most person who really knows how to do as it has been acted. This ends up being psychological torture to the concern persons hence there is need to adequately limit the access to such media by the children (Cesarone, 1994). Time should be planned well for children so as to avoid wasting too much of their productive time. They should be able to do school homework and have time with their family. They should also find some time to play with their friends. This will help them grow well and be physically fit. Parents should manage time for their children well. Time planning will also ensure that some programs which are irrelevant to children are not watched. In general TV is important to children and should be allowed to watch it. However, parents should control the programs in the television that their children watch. Parents should select the programs that she knows are helpful to their children. However programs which children may really want to watch should be considered if good they can be allowed (Gentile, 2003). Children should be encouraged to watch good programs in television because they are educational as well as entertaining. Parents should choose the programs that are to be watched by their children. This is important as it will allow only good programs to be watched. Children should not be allowed to watch programs and listen to songs which may contain some sexual and violence scenes. This instills a bad sexual behavior in the lives of people. This is the main cause the current state of marriage problems and high rate of divorce. The youths also are implementing such bad sexual behaviors and injuring one another for no appropriate reason (Preiss, 2007). There are several break-ups and misconducts which lead to devastating psychological problems. These psychological problems are hard to clean or clear up in the live of a person but ends up being a source of disturbance on the person all through his or her life. This is also the main source of making irrational decisions which are not helpful at all in our lives since people think and reason with emotions as a result of the psychological instability and torture. People even tend to fix their marriages as per the programs which they have watched. This is due to their lack of adequate knowledge on the relevance and the irrelevance of such scenes. The emotional pats are very disturbing and hence most people who watch them ends up getting carried away and in most cases, they also ask themselves questions as to the reasons why any ugly scene happened. This is a clear indication that it’s a real source of psychological disturbance on the individuals. There is therefore need for people to control what they watch and limit also their thoughts to entertainment not to be carried away by them and being violent. Watching these programs may affect them later in their lives. Horror movies may make children terrified which may affect them negatively throughout their lives (Kirsh, 2009). Conclusion It was found that after the introduction of television, people have become more violent. This is due to the exposure to the violent media. People tend to apply to their real lives what was done on the movie. It may even make one to be remorseful when they do something bad. Media violence is also aired in television and it negatively affects the young people. Exposure of young people to the media violence makes them to be more violent and this is highly seen when they become adults. Violence is the act of injuring and killing someone. Children can watch movies in the television that may influence them to kill or even get affected by the site of a dead person. There is need to adequately control what is being watched by people so as to avoid the psychological torture from such violent media. Video game is another type of media violence that has a great effect on people. Most of the games that are produced have some form of violence in it and this may psychologically affect the young people. There should be a means of counterchecking any form of game so that the children may not develop the same attitudes as what is being played. References Bryant, J. Oliver, M. B.(2009). Media effects: advances in theory and research. 3rd ed. Kentucky: Taylor Francis Cesarone, B. (1994). Video Games and Children. New York: Cengage Learning Freedman, J. L. (2002). Media violence and its effect on aggression: assessing the scientific evidence. Toronto: University of Toronto Press Gentile, D. A. (2003). Media violence and children: a complete guide for parents and professionals. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group Giles, D. (2003). Media psychology. New York: Routledge Kirsh, S. J. (2006). Children, adolescents, and media violence: a critical look at the research. New York: SAGE Publications Kirsh, S. J. (2009). Media and Youth: A Developmental Perspective. New York: John Wiley and Sons Ruben, B. D. (2006). Communication Yearbook. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers Perse, E. M. (2001). Media effects and society. New York: Routledge Preiss, R. W. (2007). Mass media effects research: advances through meta- analysis. London: Routledge Wilkins, L. Christians, C. G. (2009). The handbook of mass media ethics. New York: Taylor Francis

British Colonization Essay Example for Free

British Colonization Essay Europe expansion to India began in 18th century had great changes in various field such as economics politic, society, culture and so on. Especially, after British imperialism which became a ruler of India had great effect on India. As a result, there are many essential changes in language and customs in India and even thought they gained independence from British rule 200 years ago, the influence on the British colonial era has still remained in many ways. One of the most factors that the British lunched the colonization of India was the establishment of the East India Company. Throughout the 16th century to early 17th century, the demand for spices in Europe had continued to increase. At early 1600s, the Portuguese were the only European country which imported spices from the East. They dominated the spice trade with Asia because Vasco da Gama was the first European to arrive in India. Having arrived in Calicut he obtained from Saamoothiri Rajah permission to trade in the city. However the Dutch ousted the Portuguese from East and became the exclusive supplier of spices to Europe. British traders frequently engaged in hostilities with their Dutch and Portuguese counterparts in the Indian Ocean The East India Company had the unusual distinction of ruling an entire country. In 1600, the East India Company was chartered by Queen Elizabeth I for trade with Asia. They decided to head on to India for trade because at this time Portugal that had powerful trade with East Asia was losing control of East Asian Spice trade transformed by the European Age of Discovery. However, the East India Company had to confront and deal with the Dutch to increase the trade. At that point, The Dutch East India Company was a peak in 1669. They employed around 10000 soldiers, 40 warships and 150 merchant ships. and had a good position trading with Asia by reason of good ship captains, merchants, banker and financiers. Therefore, it was important for England to be done about the Dutch to increase trade. According to The East India Company Lobby, Charles ? ’ sought favorable terms for the East India Company in European nation and established the Council of Trade of 1660 to deal with their grievances. Parliament also helped the merchants. In 1663 it sanctioned exports of bullion and foreign currency for the first time. It tried to restrict Dutch commercial superiority in the fishing, spice, and wool trades. In short, the effort of the British government to help the Company against the Dutch provided benefits for many English traders. So they began to send ships to the Spice trade with India. In addition, the East India Company was comparatively easy to expand in India because of the decline of Mughal power. In that time, the Mughal Empire was an lslamic imperial power in Indian subcontinent which began in 1526. They were descendants of the Timurids and controlled most of the Indian Subcontinent. In 1612, The British got a major victory over the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally. And the East India Company decided to explore the feasibility of gaining a territorial foothold in mainland in India and requested the Crown to launch a diplomatic. In 1627, the Mughal Emperor Jahangir granted the India Company permission to build a fortified factory at the principal Mughal port of Surat. However, the factory at Bombay became the headquarters of the Company. Eventually the region was divided into the three presidencies of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. In consequence, they were still responsible to the Court of Directors in London and the East India Company garnered huge profits generated by a system of triangular trade that saw English gold and silver coins traded for Indian goods. It is not much say that British rule in India was originated from having begun in 1757. On June 23rd of that year, at the Battle of Plassey, a small village and mango grove between Calcutta and Murshidabad, the forces of the East India Company under Robert Clive defeated the army of Siraj-ud-daulah, the Nawab of Bengal. The battle lasted no more than a few hours, and indeed the outcome of the battle had been decided long before the soldiers came to the battlefield. The battle of plassey is said to be one of the pivotal battles leading to the formation of the British in South Asia. The British gained the enormous wealth from the Bengal treasury, and access to a massive source of foodgrains and taxes. It also allowed them to significantly strengthen its military might, and opened the way for British colonial rule, mass economic exploitation and cultural domination in nearly all of South Asia. In 1757, by reason of the victory at Plassey, where a military force led by Robert Clive defeated the forces of the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daulah, the East India Company had varied to be transformed from an association of traders to rulers exercising political sovereignty over a largely unknown land and people. So the Parliament of Great Britain imposed a series of administrative and economic reforms and by doing so clearly found its sovereignty and ultimate control over the Company. During this time, it ame into conflict with the Marathas, the British and the Nizam of Golconda which culminated in the four Anglo-Mysore wars. In 1779, Haider Ali had token parts of modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the south, enlarging the Kingdom’s area to about 205. 000km. In 1779, Haider Ali invaded Karnataka with 80. 000 army, descending through the passes of the Ghats amid burning villages, before laying siege to British forts in northern Arcot starting the Second Anglo-Mysore War. That was to say that they did damage to the British but he died after 2 years his son Tipu Sultan succeed to the throne. Haider Ali’s successor, Tipu Sultan, kept to fight the war so the following year, he took many British army and officers dispatched from Bombay. As a result, the treaty of Mangalore was signed in 1784 bringing hostilities with the British to a temporary and uneasy halt and restored the other’s lands to the status quo ante bellum. The East India Company could gain control of all India by the aggressive policies of Lord Wellesley and the Marquis of Hastings without the Punjab, Sindh and Nepal. Also Indian Princes had become barons of the East India Company. However there were finances to the breaking point in the Company comparing with the expense of wars leading to the total control of India. The Company was extorted to petition Parliament of assistance. Certain Indian social or religious practices that the British found to be abhorrent were outlawed, such as aati in 1829, and an ethic of improvement was said to dictate British social policies. In the 1840s and 1850s, under the governal-generalship of Dalhousie and then Canning, more territories were absorbed into British India, either on the grounds that the native rulers were corrupt. , inept, and notoriously indifferent about the welfare of their subjects, or that since the native ruler had failed to produce a biological male heir to the throne, the territory was bound to â€Å"lapse† into British India upon the death of the ruler. The peace the company made to India helped undermine Indian society. In 1813, English Protestant missionaries were permitted by the company to come to India, establishing missions and schools among the Indian population. Increasingly British authority started to reform in India. For instance, William Bentinck who was governor general from 1833 to 1835 outlawed the practice of sati, by which a Hindu widow was burned on her dead husband’s funeral pyre. In the second of the 19th century, both the direct administration of India by the British crow and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution, had the effect of intertwining the economies of India and the Britain. Basically many of the important change in transport and communications had already begun before the Mutiny. The beginning of dispute between the company administration and the Indian governor-general came under the marquess of Dalhousie, who served from 1848 to 1856. He aggressively tried to increase lands under the company’s control by the doctrine of lapse that allowed the company to annex Indian principalities. So many points of friction culminated in a violent outbreak. According to the Revolt in Delhi and Its Afterlife written by Nayanjot Lahiri, in 1857, a sepoy mutiny broke out in Meerut, which was the headquarters of a division of the Bengal army. In less than a day, by the early hours of the morning of 11 May, the Meerut mutineers crossing the bridge of boats on the Yamuna river, reached Delhi. The garrison there, almost immediately, revolted, many British residents were massacred and Bahadur Shah ? , the Mughal king who resided in Helhi, accepted the nominal leadership of the rebellion. That was the start in the Sepoy Mutiny. The source of the Sepoy Mutiny, Sepoy Rebellion, was that The East India Company began recruiting native citizens as trios in 1667, in order to maintain control during their trading operations. In 1748, the British followed suit and began recruiting and training Indians to fight with their weaponry and methods. The Indian units were called â€Å"native sepoys† and became the largest part of the forces in India. After British had gained two-thirds of India’s land imperialism had begun to affect every part of Indian life, there was an incredible amount of tension that only needed a small spark to set off a huge revolt. The spark that came to begin the period of revolts was the introduction of new, more accurate breech-loading Enfield rifle. The first event was the bloody uprising at the garrison in Meerut, in which the mutineers murdered every European they found. Then they marched to Delhi and â€Å"placed themselves under the leadership of the impotent and bewildered Mogul Emperor Bahadur Shah†. The idea of rebellion spread through the Ganges valley, the Rajputna, Central India, and parts of Bengal. Then, Cawnpore had surrendered to Nana Sahib, and Lucknow, the only British-held outpost in Oudh, was besieged† and it was discovered that 200 European men, women, and children murderd a month earlier in the mutiny and siege at Cawnpore. Vengeance was swift and harsh: suspected mutineers were tied to cannons and executed. In six month, the mutiny had been broken, and, within the next year, British power was restored. In 1858, the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Rebellion, broke out. This was the huge threat posed to the British during the British India. At that time, they abolished the East India Company and replaced it with direct rule under the British. Large swathes of territory in the Gangetic plains had fallen to the rebel. Atrocities were conducted on both sides. British troops, which were units controlled by the East India Company and were paid for by their profis, recaptured Delhi in 1857 and the Emperor Mughals, Bahadur Shah, was put on trial for sedition and convicted. Finally the Rebellion had been crushed in 1858. The East India Company was disbanded by John Stuart Mill, the Commissioner of Correspondence at India House and the unacknowledged formulator of British policy with respect to the native states, furnished and elaborate but ultimately unsuccessful plea on behalf of the Company. Thus, India became a Crown colony of the British which governed directly by Paliament. Queen Victoria announced that she and her officers would work for the welfare of their Indian subjects. However there were some debates among Indians surrounding the policies like female education, widow remarriage, the age for marriage, the state of women, English education, the expansion of the government and more member of Indian joined government service. On the strength of that, there was a considerable increase in both English and Indian journalism and the Indian National Congress was founded in order that Indians who was educated well could gain a voice in the governance in India. But, they did not allow nationalist sentiments within the organization like the Congress. In 905, the British partitioned Bengal because it was the large size of the presidency and so provoked the first major resistance to British rule and administrative policies. During that time, Indians started many strategies of non violent resistance, boycott, strike and cooperation. Finally the British agreed to revoke the partition of Bengal. The partition attempted partly to divide with the Muslim area from Bengal which was Hindu and The capital in India was changed with Calcutta to Delhi. The railway was built by the British India government for military reasons and with the hope that it would stimulate industry. It was overbuilt and much too elaborate and expensive for the small amount of freight traffic it carried, The India railways system provided India with social savings of 9 percent of India’s national income. The Rowlatt Act that the British enacted to the Indian help in WWI allowed that the government could imprison anyone without a trial and a conviction. and thousands of people protested peacefully against the law and British troops coped with the protest by armored vehicle. As a result, more than thousands people, women and children, were massacred. The event also caused the non-cooperation movement against the British by Mathtma Ganhi in 1920 to 1942. Negotiations for some agreement with independence took place in 1930 in London. And finally, the British would grant India its independence. India got more deeply to effort the British during WWII. Also troops, the princely states donated substantial amounts of cash. By the end of the war, India had an incredible 2. 5 million man volunteer army. Approximately 8700 Indian soldier were killed in the war. As a result, the Indian independence movement was very strong by that time and the British rule was widely resented. 0000 Indian were recruited by the Germans and Japanese to fight against the Allies in exchange of their freedom. Indian fought in Burma, North Africa, Italy and so on. In 1946, there was a violent fighting broken out between Hindus and Muslims in Calcutta. And the trouble spread across India. The trouble flared again as independence approached and they agreed to divide India along sectatian lines. While Muslim areas in the north became the Pakistan, Hindu and Sikh stayed in India and by unprecedented horrors of partition, 500000 was killed and many women were abducted or raped. Finally it is true that the British made positive contributions to Indian life. During the British India, India inherited from the British their university, agriculture system and Industry but remains religious conflict. Social institutions like clubs and gymkhanas were a important factor of British. The Indian language was also developed well. The influential school of painting emerged in 19th century and can scarcely be understood without a reference to the creation of a modern market. In sports, cricket is the most famous in India. However, they also brought serious negative consequence with colonialism.

Employee Turnover Types, Theories and Effects

Employee Turnover Types, Theories and Effects In this chapter, the literature review is aimed to present the concept, models, theories and previous research to the causes and correlation of employee turnover. The contents focus on employee turnover, the factors that influence the employee turnover: personal characteristics, job satisfaction, organisational commitment and perceived alternative job opportunities. Employee turnover has been defined by Price (1977) as the movement of members across the boundary of an organisation. As Mobley (1982) defined that turnover is the voluntary cessation of membership in an organisation by an individual who receives monetary compensation for participating in that organisation. This definition emphasises voluntary behavior because primary turnover model seek to explain what motivates employees to withdraw from the workplace. Furthermore, this concept focuses on separation from an organisation and not includes accession, transfer, or other internal movements through an organisation. Moreover, there are many definitions in same perspective from many authors as Van der Merwe and Miller (1996) stated that employee turnover is a permanent withdrawal and also function of the person-work relationship. The authors emphasise that there should be a fit between the worker, the agency and the environment. If this fit is not present or available, turnover is likely to occur. This relationship is considered pervasive. It can be affected by any or all aspects of the job situation, both inside and outside the employing organisation. Lane (2001) described employee turnover as the result of both quits and layoffs and further states that some turnover is a result of jobs in one firm being destroyed and jobs in another firm being created and hence due to the reallocation of jobs across the economy in response to changes in product demand. From the descriptions above, the researcher could conclude that job turnover is when employees leave their employment permanently and the entrance of new employees to the organisation. That employee turnover can either be positive or negative, but all have a significant impact on productivity (Boxall and Baldwin, 2002) Types of employee turnover There are two different types of employee turnover in an organisation that many authors have identified the following types of employee turnover: Voluntary turnover Gomez-Mejia et al (1997) defined voluntary turnover as a separation that occurs when an employee decides for personal reasons to end the relationship with the employer. The decision could be based on the employee obtaining a better job, changing career, or wanting more time for family or the present job is unattractive because of poor working conditions, low pay or benefits, and bad relationship with supervisor. In most cases the decision to leave is a combination of having attractive alternative opportunities and being unhappy with aspects of the current job. Sims (2007) conceded that voluntary turnover occurs when an employee initiates the termination of their employment of their own free will. Quits is one type of voluntary turnover. Grobler et al (2002) defined quits as occurring when an employee leaves the organisation without giving the normal period of notice (e.g. one month). It is usually a sudden decision by the employee. Thus, it should be noted that quits can occur at any time and mostly when the organisation least expects it. This can be serious impact on the organisations total performance and productivity. Although organisation can not do much about employee quitting, they can try to determine the possible reason for leaving or for making that decision. Involuntary turnover Gomea-Mejia et al (1997) defined that involuntary turnover occurs when management decides to terminate its relationship with an employee due to economic necessity or a poor fit. The organisation or the employee cannot control this type of turnover. It is further stressed by the authors that involuntary turnover results in very serious and painful decisions that can have a profound impact on the entire organisation, espacially the employee who loses his or her job. Mkhize (1998) concedes involuntary turnover as when an employee is asked by the organisation to leave. Involuntary turnover represents employer-initiated job separations over which employee have little or no personal say, such as dismissal or layoffs. Sims (2007) also concedes that involuntary turnover arises when employment is terminated against the wishes of employees. Those authors from their definitions stress the fact that with this type of turnover is result from the employers decision rather than the employee. It mig ht be employers would not want to keep poor performers or excess manpower. The costs of employee turnover Kelly (2001) stated that employee turnover costs are the problem that most executives are aware of but do not acknowledge as a potential loss of revenue. A lot of disadvantages that are brought up by employee turnover are clearly evident in cost benefit analyses. Human resource mangers know that employee turnover is a major cost and significantly impacts an organisation (Irvancewich, 1994). Many managers refuse to face up to these costs, but they might be forced to do so when considering the various factors necessary to calculate the cost of employee wastage (Stewart,1998) According to Mitchell et al (2001), employee turnover imposes extensive cost both the individual and the organisation level. At individual level, it does not matter if the person leaves voluntarily to another job or is forced to leave and take a personal toll. For organisation level, the problem arises when leaving employees take their valuable knowledge and expertise gained through experience with them. This turnover leads to numerous costs for the organisation, such as: Exist interview time and administrative requirement Payout of unused vacation time Cost of temporary workers Overtime for co-workers Training costs Replacement costs, include advertising, processing of candidates, interviewing, selecting. Potter (2002) postulated that employee turnover is a critical cost driver for American business. The cost of retaining and filling vacancies, lost productivity from vacant jobs and cost of training new employees increase operational costs. Elements of the cost of job turnover very widely and depend on whether all cost elements are recognised. The author further identifies three primary elements of employee turnover costs that include the following; Staffing Costs Sometimes are referred to as cost per hire. These include the costs of recruiting job applicants (such as advertising or job board posting, screening applicants, personal search, service brokerage fees, relocation expenses and signing bonuses). Vacancies cost While a position is vacant the productivity of the former employee is lost and the productivity of the overall organisation is reduced as the remaining workers cope with being shorthanded. Jay (1998) referred to these as the temporary replacement costs of getting the work done while the post is vacant and can include overtime, temps and many others. -Training cost The replacement employees time, other employees time and valuable resources must be expanded to train each employee and to facilitate the transition because no new employee starts working at 100% efficiency. Jay (1998) added the induction costs to the training and refers to this as direct costs and pay during unproductive early stages. Stone (2002) maintained that this phase is the non-productive time because it is characterised by dislocation of the other employees work as the new employee tries to settle down and incurs the same view on the lost productivity. Thus, training costs includes an organisations expenditure to orientate and train replacements and opportunity costs caused by inefficient production. The further statement identified an extension of those elements as follows: Redeployment Redeployment of an existing labour force as a result of labour turnover involves extra costs as this creates vacancies in the system. Assimilation and efficiency lost cost incurred before the new employee is fully proficient. Relocation Costs These costs include hotel charges, direct disturbances allowance, for example legal fees, removal fees, house purchase assistance and temporal travel subsidy of the new employee. Leaving costs These costs are associated with creating the vacancy, the closing of the previous appointment, for example refunding, superannuation payments, etc. Ham Griffeth (1995) refered to the leaving costs as the separation costs and describe them as those that quitting produces directly. A good example is exit interviews that are conducted when the employee leaves the employer to determine the reason for leaving. The researcher conceded that high employee turnover in an organisation means increased recruitment, selection and training costs. It can also mean a disruption in the efficient running of an organisation when knowledge, experienced personnel leave and replacements use be found and prepared to assume a position of responsibility. Theories related to employee turnover Expectancy theory holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes. Generally, expectancy theory can be used to predict behavior in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made. For example, it can be used to predict whether to leave or stay at a job and whether to try substantial or minimal effort at task (kreitner and Kinicki, 2001). Vrooms expectancy theory (1964) According to Vroom (1964), the strength of tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of expectancy that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the value or attractiveness of that outcome to the actor. Motivation, according to Vroom, boils down to decision of how much effort to put in specific task situation. This choice is based on a two-stage sequence of expectations that are effort-to-performance and performance-to-outcome. First, motivation is affected by an individuals expectation that a certain level of effort will produce the intended performance goal. Motivation also is influenced by the employees perceived chances of getting various outcomes as a result of accomplishing his or her performance goal. Individuals are motivated to the extent that they value the outcomes received. There are three key concepts within Vrooms model, which are expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Expectancy According to Vrooms expectancy theory, expectancy represents an individuals belief that a particular degree of effort will be follow by a particular level of performance. In other words, it is an effort-to-performance expectation which refers to a degree of effort to which individual feels that it will lead to achievement of desired goal (kreitner and Kinicki, 2001) Instrumentality Instrumentality is a performance to outcome perception. It represents a persons belief that a particular outcome is contingent on accomplishing a specific level of performance (kreitner and Kinicki, 2001) Valence Valence refers to the positive or negative values people place on outcomes. For example, most employees have a positive valence for receiving additional money or recognition. In contrast, job stress and being laid off would likely be negatively valence for most individuals. In Vrooms expectancy theory, outcomes refer to different consequences that are contingent on performance, such as pay, promotion, or recognition. An outcomes valence depends on a individuals need (kreitner and Kinicki, 2001) Peter and Edward Lawlers Expectancy Theory (1969) Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler III developed an expectancy theory of motivation that extended Vrooms expectancy theory. This theory attempted to identifies the source of peoples valences and expectancies and link effort with performance and job satisfaction. There are three key variables which are predictors of effort, predictors of performance and predictors of reward and satisfaction (kreitner and Kinicki, 2001). Predictors of effort Effort is a function of perceived value of reward which represents the rewards valence and the perceived effort to reward probability. Employees will exhibit more effort when they believe they will receive values rewards for task accomplishment. Predictors of performance Performance determined by more than effort. The relationship between effort and performance is contingent on an employees abilities and traits and role perceptions. That is, employees with higher abilities attain higher performance for a given level of effort than employees with less ability. Similarly, effort results in higher performance when employees clearly understand and are comfortable with their roles. This occurs because effort is channels into the most important job activities or tasks. Predictors of rewards and satisfaction Employees receive both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for performance. Intrinsic rewards are self- granted and consist of intangible such as a sense of accomplishment and achievement. Extrinsic rewards are tangible outcomes such as pay and public recognition. In turn, job satisfaction is determined by employees perceptions of the equity of the rewards received. Employees are more satisfied when they feel equitably rewards. Finally, employees future effort to reward probabilities is influenced by past experience with performance and rewards. Models of employee turnover To reinforce the previous definitions of employee turnover Man Sararat (1984) stated that a labour force movement was a process whereby labourers would make decision in regard to where and when they would work. It means the labourers choose their own employers and locations where they will work, and may change their jobs and companies as many times as the wish. Personal characteristics The concept of personal characteristic The personal factors include individual qualities that can be viewed as personal traits the employee possesses and which are distinctive to the individual (Harmse, 1999). The author further asserted that it has to do with what and who the individual is within his total being and which guide his behavior or functioning. According to the researcher, the employees general outlook on life is one of the major factors that influence employee turnover. An employee with a high self-esteem, confidence in his or her abilities and with a positive outlook on life is more likely to stay than the one with a negative attitude. Thus, these factors are inherent in human behavior. The following are the personal factors that influences employee turnover as identified by different authors. Relationship between personal characteristics and employee turnover A large number of research studies have identified the importance of individual or personal characteristic factors as predictors of employee turnover (Arnold Feldman, 1982; Cotton Tuttle, 1986; Lee Mowday, (1987). Among the characteristics most commonly examined are age, education, and tenure (length of time a person has worked in an organisation) (McBey Karakowsky, 2000; Mowday, 1982) The personal characteristic differences had been identified as potentially important correlates of turnover. This was because gender and age may be important negative correlates of turnover intention and turnover (Thatcher et al., 2003). Various studies had attempted to look beyond the traditional relationship theorised between job satisfaction and voluntary turnover. Gleser (1990) states that sex, race and age variables should be considered since minority group may face discriminatory practices and may approach job satisfaction differently than more normative groups. Age and employee turnover Drafke and Kossen (2002) maintained that employee turnover typically increases with age. Older employees have more work experience. They have a better understanding of what work needs can satisfy and overall they have a more realistic view of work and life. Young employees have comparatively little or no job experience with which to compare their current jobs and because of this they are more likely to substitute the opinions of other people, their own beliefs about other peoples jobs and their own idealistic views of what should be their lack of experience. In another way, Younger employees had more entry-level job opportunities and few family responsibilities, thus making job mobility easier. They may also have inaccurate expectation regarding working, which are not fulfilled in their early jobs (Porter Steers, 1973; Wanous, 1980). Therefore, younger employees are more likely to terminate their employment than older employees. Furthermore, Mc McCullough (2002) who stressed that age is a widely known factor that influences employee turnover. The author further states that the younger employee, the stronger likelihood of employee quit. The longer that employee stays, the more turnover risk goes down. Similarly older employees are less likely to quit than younger ones, as younger ones are more likely to take employment risks and hop to other jobs. The author still concedes that research has confirmed that the older employee, the lower likelihood of quitting. Education and employee turnover Neither a strong nor a consistent relationship between education and turnover is evident in the literature (Mobley, 1979; Price, 1977). Since many turnover studies are based on individuals with similar educations, a relation between turnover and education is difficult to establish. However, Arnold and Feldman (1982) and Brief and Aldag (1980) stated that education is positively related to employee turnover. Wong et al. (1999) found that individuals with higher education levels are better informed of the alternative opportunities available in the external labour market. Managers with high educational qualifications, by virtue of their high employability, they are greater discretion in their choice to turnover. If mangers perceive that reward levels are not commensurate with education or human capital value and performance levels, it is likely that they will report a greater number of turnover cognitions (Trevor et al., 2007) Tenure and employee turnover According to streers (1997) and Mobley (1982), there are many research studies which suggest that a negative relationship exists between tenure and turnover. The research has indicated that relatively high turnover occurs among new employees (Mobley, 1982). It should be noted that tenure has been considered as a covariant of age (Bedeian et al., 1992; Kacmar Ferris, 1989), and consequently its influence is similar to that of age. As an employees tenure increases, the formal benefits (e.g. compensation and promotions) and informal benefits (e.g. status) also increase. Given these issues, employees with higher tenure are less likely to leave their organisation for fear of losing these benefits upon entry into a new organisation (Hellman, 1997). Job satisfaction The description of job satisfaction There are many authors define job satisfaction in the literature. Job satisfaction is influenced by economic factors such as pay, benefit and rewords as well as structural and procedural factors reflecting autonomy or fairness. Hersey and Blanchard (1993) defined the job satisfaction is a consequence of the past which refer to employees feeling about the reward they have received when comparison with work role input and its outcome. Robbins (1996) conceded that job satisfaction refer to a collecting attitude toward ones job which is different between the amount of rewards workers receive and the amount that they should receive. Mitchell et al (2001) stated that employees who feel satisfied with their jobs have a positive experience of their pay, supervision, chances for promotion, work environment, clear roles and met expectations. Furthermore, Weiss and Cropanzano (1998) stated that job satisfaction represents a persons evaluation of his or her job and work context. It is an appraisal of the perceive job characteristics and emotional experiences at work. Satisfied employees have a favorable evaluation of their job based on their observation and emotional experiences. In the same way, Schermerhorn et al (2000) define job satisfaction as the degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about their jobs. It is an attitude or emotional response to ones tasks as well as to the physical and social conditions of workplace. According to Locke (1976), job satisfaction is really a collection of attitudes about specific facets of the job. Employees can satisfy with some elements of the job while simultaneously dissatisfy with others. Different type of satisfaction will lend to different intention and behavior (McShane and Glinow, 2002). To access ones job satisfaction, five facets of job satisfaction should be measured following (Kreitner and Kinicki, (2001) : Work- itself (job) Harmse (1999) described a job as a position within an organisation depending on the scope of the organisation, which can be as small as one. The author still mension that it can also be viewed as a group of positions that are nearly as identical with respect to primary duties and tasks that are sufficiently similar to be included in less than one title. Kolen (1997) argued that a job is fully specified. Kolen (1997) defined the job as the kind and amount of work to be performed by a person or a piece of equipment within a given time period. The author still maintains that every well-conceived job definition should always consist of two parts namely: Job description- This is a detailed statement of the content of the job in terms of major tasks the sequence of those tasks and the conditions under which they will be performed. Mondy Premeaux (1994) described job description as a document that describes the tasks and responsibilities of a job and its relationships to other jobs. According to Harmse (1999), the job descriptions are beneficial for both the individual employee and the organisation. . According to Harmse (1999), the job descriptions are beneficial for both the individual employee and the organisation. The author further identifies the following advantages: The employee has a concise picture of why he or she is employed, The employee can easily identify how he or she will be assessed, The parameters of authority and accountability are clear, Given the big picture, i.e. the mission statements, the value of this specific position for the organisation can be identified, It assists in placing the right person in the right position, There is more efficiency and effectiveness throughout the organisation as tasks and responsibilities are identified. Job specification- This states the qualification an individual must posses to perform the job. Mondy Premeaus (1994) viewed a job specification as the minimum acceptable qualifications a person possess to perform a particular job. Luthans (1992) mention that work-itself is one of the major source of satisfaction. In additional, some of the most important ingredients of satisfying job included interesting and challenge work, work that not boring and a job that provided status. Van Dyk (2001) stressed that any job should have key characteristics that directly affect employee performance and satisfaction and thus in turn influences job turnover. The authors further identify the following three job characteristics; Variety-refers to the number of different tasks and activities included in the job. Challenge- is the level of difficulty of job tasks and activities. Autonomy-refers to the extent to which an employee can carry out his/her tasks independently on the job. The job that does not consist of the above job characteristics will not seem to have any meaning. Employees would what to do the job that is exciting and be able to use their abilities in doing it. Without these, chances of employees leaving their employers are accelerated. Pay Perceived competitiveness of pay refers to employees perceptions that salaries are Promotion Luthans (1995) described promotional opportunities as advancement in the hierarchy. Nel (2001) ascertained that a promotion occurs when an employee is moved from one job to another that is higher in pay, responsibility or organisation seniority. Various approaches can be used to promote employees and this can be based on the persons promotion potential, development needs and talent shortages in the organisation. Skidmore (1995) stated that promotions are important in the functioning of the organization. Nearly every employee wants to move ahead, both in position and in salary. The procedures and standards for promotion should be clearly defined through sound administration. Co-worker According to Robbins (2001), human need social interaction from their workplace in supporting, cooperate, comfort, advice, and assistance to the individual work. Therefore, to have friendly and supportive co-workers could lead to increase job satisfaction. Lance (2007) concedes that perception of co-worker integration and cohesiveness among peers directly affects job satisfaction. In the opposite way, turnover tends to increase for employees who are dissatisfied with their co-workers (Watt and White, 1988). Supervisor Lewis Souflee (1994) described that supervision is process that involves helping a less experienced person increase his or her effectiveness in service delivery. Through the vehicle of supervisory relationship, the supervisor provides support and encouragement, helps build skills and competences and oversees the supervisees work. According to Luthans (1992), supervisor is another moderately important source of job satisfaction. To the extent that supervisor provides technical assistance and behavioral support such as treated employees fairly, offers praise for good performance, listens to employees Kadushin (1992) stressed that supervision in an organisation is important because it enhances the morale of the staff while maintaining the system; meaning supervisee are supervised according to their different levels. For example, the less experienced tend to be supervised according to tutorial model, whereas those with more experience achieve similar purpose through case consultation, peer group consultations, peer group interaction, staff development programs and work teams. Skidmore, Thackery Farley (1997) shared this view by mentioning that supervision is a major part of work because it is concerned with helping the staff to use their knowledge and skills in getting the job done efficiently and well. Theories related to job satisfaction Luthans (1995) conceded that Herzbergs two factor motivational theories cast a new life on the content of work motivation. The theory offers an explanation specifically to the work place and job design (Grobler et al 2002). Robbins (1993) stated that Herzberg believed an individuals relation to his or her work is a basic one and that his or her attitude towards his work can very well determine the individual success or failure, and referred to this as motivation-hygiene theory. Herzberg concluded that there is a relation between job satisfiers and job content; job dissatisfiers are allied to hob on text. The author named the motivation factors satisfiers and called dissatisfiers hygiene factors. The hygiene factors are preventative because they can prevent dissatisfaction and are environmental in nature, and therefore are roughly equivalent to Maslows lower level needs (Luthans 1995). The motivators are intrinsic and related to job satisfaction for example achievement, recognition, and the work-itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth. The hygiene factors are extrinsic and comprise company policy, administration supervision, salary, interpersonal relations and working conditions. Robbins (2001) postulated that according to Herzberg, the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Therefore managers who seek to eliminate factors that create job dissatisfaction can bring about peace, but not necessarily motivation. Thus, managers who hire wages will be placating their workforce rather than motivating them. It is evidenct that the Herzberg two factor motivational theories indicate that the more resources are poured down the hygiene drain for example increasing fringe benefits, the more resources will be needed in future. This is because with hygiene factors, ever-increasing amounts are needed to produce the same effect. A classic example is the issue of salary that never seems to be resolved; employees will still be discontent over wages even after concluding salary negotiations. As indicated earlier, motivators are intrinsic in nature and reflect the work content of the job. The supervisor cannot disperse them to the employees but they are controlled by employees and are administered personally. It is evident that no one can give another person the satisfaction that comes from accomplishing a particularly challenging job. According to the researcher, the need to motivate workers is a very crucial one. Motivation is required if the workers are to make a significant impact on their work given the limited budgets they operate on and the very difficult circumstances. In any situation, every employer would like to have employees who are motivated to do their work efficiently and effectively. This bears fruitful results and enhances organisational productivity and a lot of problems associated with de-motivation like absenteeism and late coming can be avoided. Relationship between job satisfaction and employee turnover During the past century, a variety of conceptual models for the turnover process have been developed (Lambert et al., 2001). It has been extensively studied, both as a dependent and independent variable. In 1976, Locke estimated the number or articles and dissertations dealing in some manner with the subject of job satisfaction to be over 3,300. By 1996, Spector estimated that the number of studies that have incorporated job satisfaction in some manner to be over 12,000. While these models have diverse origins from a wide array of disciplines, many researchers have theorized that job satisfaction is a key antecedent of worker turnover (Mobley et al., 1979; Price Mueller, 1986; Williams Hazer, 1986). Roznowski and Hulin (1992) contended that overall job satisfaction measures are the most informative data a manager or researcher can have for predicting employee behavior. Further, it has been theorised that high levels of job dissatisfaction lead to employee withdrawal, particularly in terms of voluntary turnover. According to Danserau et al. (1974), Mitchell (1981), Porter and Steers (1973), job satisfaction has been related to turnover. Muchinsky and Tuttle (1979) analysed nineteen articles dealing with job satisfaction and turnover. Overall, there was a negative relationship between job satisfaction and turnover although the strength of the relationship varied form study to study. In general, satisfied workers are less likely to leave their jobs than those with high job satisfaction quotients. The review noted that the relationship remained constant over different types of samples, organisations, and measures of job satisfaction (Birdseye Hill, 1995). Organisationa

Descriptive Essays - The Horse Farm :: Descriptive Essay, Descriptive Writing

The Horse Farm I am jarred out of a relaxing sleep by a voice yelling my name in a loud whisper, and a light burning through my eyelids. Groggily, I open my eyes to see my father standing in the doorway to my messy room. He tells me that I need to get going, that it is 3:00 a.m., and I'm burning daylight. I find my clothes and get dressed. The whole time I wonder why I get up this early to visit the rugged outdoors. I want to go back to bed, but I know my dad will be back in to make sure I am getting ready, in a little bit. Instead, I put my boots and my wide-brimmed, black cowboy hat on, and walked out to catch the horses. The horses are all excited because it is dark and they are not that cooperative. My dad and I get them saddled and in the trailer, and go back into the house to get our lunch, water, and a cup of coffee. Now, we can head for the high country. It is still dark when we get there, so our horses are still very alert; they keep moving around and snorting with eyes wide and nostrils flared. I strap my pistol to my hips and tie the tip of the holster to my leg so it doesn't flop. We are ready to go, so I take a deep breath of the sharp, clean, mountain air and step into the saddle. As we ride along in the dark, I begin to relax. Man, I love the smell of cool mountain air; there is nothing in the world quite like it. It is so refreshing for me. As the sky begins to brighten to a gray, and the stars that were so brilliant just seconds ago begin to grow dim, my imagination starts to picture things moving that are really nothing but shadows in the trees. It is as if the shadows are racing around trying to find their owners before the sun peeks its gleaming face up over the horizon. A deer jumps from its bed, scaring the horses and pumping a quart of adrenaline through my system, as my pistol jumps to my hand. Once I realize it is just a deer, I put my pistol back in its holster. In the last seconds before the sun rises, the sky turns a soft blue.

The Absurdity of Man Essay -- essays research papers

Absurdity is defined as that which is contrary to reason; clearly untrue, unreasonable or ridiculous. It is often a topic in existentialist writings relating to life. This subject is prevalent in Camus’ â€Å"The Stranger† and â€Å"The Myth of Sisyphus.† Camus depicts absurdity bringing about happiness or indifference in each of these literary works. In â€Å"The Myth of Sisyphus,† it is made clear that Sisyphus is aware that his existence is absurd. He is sentenced to an eternity of rolling a boulder up a steep mountain only to let it roll back down when it reaches its peak. His tragedy lies in the fact that he is conscious of the extent of his own misery. What makes his struggle very absurd is that he knows that there is no death at the end of it. The last sentence in this essay is in itself absurd, after describing the dilemma that Sisyphus eternally faces, Camus exclaims, â€Å"One must imagine Sisyphus happy.† This paradox is upheld because S isyphus is left refusing to recognize that there is nothing to hope for, and that he must live solely with what is known. Sisyphus’ redemption is seen in his ongoing struggle against the absurd. In â€Å"The Stranger†, Meursault does not realize his absurd situation until the end of the novel. It is illustrated, however, in his indifference toward life and lack of emotion throughout. In the beginning of the novel, Meursault is seen as a detached observer of life who is devoted to appreciating sensation. His physical wants and needs overpower his reason and...

Explain Biblical Ideas About the Goodness of God Essay

Throughout the bible the goodness of God is shown in many ways, the bible presents God as being morally perfect, and everything that he is or will ever be is also presented as morally perfect; The Bible presents God as benevolent, an all loving figure. It displays this in a number of ways throughout the Bible, the first and possible the most important way is in the first book of the Bible, Genesis. Genesis states that everything that God creates is â€Å"Very good†; When God created the world in the Genesis creation story he commanded various things. â€Å"And God said, Let there be light: and there was light, and God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness â€Å". (Genesis 1:3-4). The authors of the bible when praising God do so because he provides reason for it. The creation of animals, plants and waters are all necessary for the sustainment of life, and religion, â€Å"Be fruitful and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it; have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air, and over every living thing that moves on the earth and God said, â€Å"See, I have given you every herb that yields seed which is on the face of all the earth, and every tree whose fruit yields seed; to you it shall be for food. (Genesis 1:28-29). Some Christians believe that there is still goodness like God’s around us today in the form of stewardship. We look after our world to improve it so we can pass it on to the next generation. Another way in which the bible shows Gods goodness is; Christians believe that God’s goodness is shown in his son Jesus, and his sacrifice in the name of God. Jesus came to earth as God in human form, he done this to experience the lives of his people. God thought it was all well and good requesting people to follow rules but because he cares he wanted to experience the lives of his believers and the difficulties they incur so he sent Jesus. Jesus was the ideal of moral goodness for humanity; he displayed the right way in which people should treat each other and how to worship God, and this was recorded and passed onto future generations by it being retold in the bible, even today people can still read it and gain knowledge of Gods sacrifice. The form of good described in the bible is very different from Platos form of good; Platos form of good was perfect and it didn’t exist on Earth it existed in the realm, making it a concept and not personal to anyone, Platos form of good doesn’t take an interest in situations or in life, it just simply exists, where as the idea of ‘Gods good’ in the bible focuses almost entirely on moral behaviour. It is concerned that humanity should be making the right choices to life by and always aims to be good. Plato’s form of the good is perfect, but because it doesn’t physically exist what ever goodness is on earth is only of copy of the ideal thus making it imperfect when it is practiced. So whatever you think you are doing is good, it is not. However God believes that everyone can be morally good thus living their lives accordingly. As soon as God creates humans he gives them rules of follow, they are to take responsibility for the earth he has created and not take from the tree of knowledge. This shows that he cares not for worship being their main duty, but he takes an interest in their lives. Gods goodness is also shown through his love in the bible, God gives humans free will, to make their own moral decisions but he clearly sets out what is right and what is wrong. However he doesn’t force them into obeying those rules, he is loving and lets them choose for themselves, this is an act of love. He knows that because he has made man in his image (Genesis 1:27) they are like God and they know what is expected of them. Even thought they haven’t been socialised they still know what is morally right. Plato would agree with this statement because he believes we all have knowledge of ideal forms from birth. God commands things to be good because he is omniscient and knows all. So everything that he commands will be perfect, good and loving.

Governmental and Non Profit Essay

1. Certain core services are provided by most general purpose governments – those related to the protection of life and property, public works, parks and recreation facilities, and cultural and social services. Governments must also incur costs for general administrative support of its service departments. Core governmental services, together with general administrative support, comprise the major part of what GASB refers to as governmental activities. The measurement focus and basis of accounting for these activities is on the flow of current financial resources on the modified accrual basis in the governmental funds and on the flow of economic resources on the accrual basis in the Governmental Activities column of the government-wide financial statements. 2. The business-type activities of a government include public utilities, transportation systems, toll road and bridges, hospitals, parking garages and lots, liquor stores, golf courses, airports, and swimming pools, among other activities. Many of thses activities are intended to be self-supporting by charging users for the services they receive. Focusing financial reporting on economic resources recognized on the accrual basis of accounting allows the government to determine whether charges for services are sufficient to cover the full cost of the activity. This measurement focus and basis of accounting allows the government to determine whether charges for services are sufficient to cover the full cost of the activity. This measurement focus and basis of accounting is the same used for reporting governmental activities in the government-wide financial statements, but quite different from the current financial resources measurement focus and modified accrual basis of accounting use d in the governmental funds. 3. Fiduciary activities of a government involve the government’s discharge of its fiduciary responsibilities, either as an agent or trustee, for parties outside the government. For example, a government may serve as agent for other governments in the administering and collecting of taxes. Fiduciary activities are accounted for in agency funds, investment trust funds, pension trust funds, and private-purpose trust funds. Fiduciary activities are reported only in the fund financial statements and not in the government-wide financial statements because these resources belong to external parties, not the government. Fiduciary funds use accrual accounting and focus on economic resources, as do business-type activities. However, reporting for fiduciary activities differs from that for governmental funds since the latter funds focus primarily on the budget and current financial resources. 4. The three categories of funds are governmental, proprietary, and fiduciary. The fund types included in each category are the following: Governmental (general fund, special revenue funds, debt service funds, capital projects funds, and permanent funds), Proprietary (enterprise funds and internal service funds) and Fiduciary (agency funds, investment trust funds, pension trust funds, and private-purpose trust funds.) These categories correspond the three activity categories with the exception that financial information for internal service funds is generally reported in the governmental activities column of the government-wide financial statements. However, if an internal service fund predominantly serves an enterprise fund, its financial information is reported in the Business-type Activities column. 5. As a fiscal entity, a fund has its own resources and can incur liabilities to be repair from the fund resources. As an accounting entity, the fund has its own self-balancing set of accounts. 6. Governmental funds focus on the flow of current financial resources. Consequently, these funds use the modified accrual basis of accounting. Under modified accrual revenues are recognized if the inflow is measurable and available to pay current period obligations. Expenditures are recognized as incurred if they will be paid from available resources.